Molecular Biology Primer: All About DNA
Introduction
This page is a quick introduction to The branch of science that studies the structure and activity of macromolecules essential to life (and especially related to their genetic role).molecular biology. You will find on this site numerous references to Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA, Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA and Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins. In order to understand those pages, a basic understanding of how these molecules interact is necessary. This description is a very simplified version of what actually happens within a cell. In reality, the system is quite complex, with dozens of accessory molecules and co-factors required at each step.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the information storage molecule for the cell. Each cell contains within the Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA the entire instruction set to produce and run an entire organism (including you). In multicellular organisms, most of the Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA is stored in a central location within the cell, called the A membrane-enclosed organelle found in all eukaryotic (non-bacterial) cells, which contains most of the cell's DNA genetic material, organized to form chromosomes.nucleus.
Bases
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA is composed of only four Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases, which can be thought of as letters of
the Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA alphabet. The structure of these four letters is shown in the figure
to the right.
There are two Organic bases (adenine and guanine) made from a double ring structure, which base-pair with pyrimidines to form the rungs in the DNA double helix.purine Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases (A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with thymine in DNA or with uracil in RNA.adenine and A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with cytosine in both DNA and RNA.guanine) and two Organic bases (cytosine and thymine in DNA, uracil in RNA) made from a single ring structure, which base-pair with purines to form the rungs in the DNA double helix.pyrimidine Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases
(A pyrimidine base found in DNA, which pairs with the complementary base adenine.thymine and A pyrimidine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with guanine in both DNA and RNA.cytosine). The Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases are commonly abbreviated with the first
letter of their names:
| Base | Abbrev. |
|---|---|
| adenine | A |
| guanine | G |
| thymine | T |
| cytosine | C |
Nucleotides
When a Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base, such as A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with thymine in DNA or with uracil in RNA.adenine, is linked to a A five-carbon sugar, having one less hydroxyl group than ribose, which alternates with phosphate groups to form the backbone of DNA.deoxyribose sugar through a
A certain type of functional group that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another, which may be another carbohydrate or amino group.glycosidic bond, the structure is called a The chemical combination of one of five single or double ringed bases and a sugar (ribose for RNA or deoxyribose for DNA).nucleoside.
When
the A five-carbon sugar, having one less hydroxyl group than ribose, which alternates with phosphate groups to form the backbone of DNA.deoxyribose sugar is The transferring of a phosphate group from a donor to an acceptor; often catalysed by enzymes.phosphorylated, on either the 3' or the 5' position
(or both), the structure is a called a One of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotide. The precursors of Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA
synthesis are deoxynucleoside-5'-triphosphates or dNTPs.
DNA structure
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA is composed of a An organic polymer molecule composed of nucleotide monomers covalently bonded in a chain. Polynucleotides can be either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid).polynucleotide (multiple Structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. Nucleotides consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotides) chain that is formed by linking Structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. Nucleotides consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotides through 3',5'- Groups of strong covalent bonds between the phosphorus atom in a phosphate group and two other molecules over two ester bonds. In DNA and RNA, the phosphodiester bond is the linkage between the 3' carbon atom and the 5' carbon of the sugar deoxyribose (in DNA) or ribose (in RNA).phosphodiester bonds. In this way, Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA forms a long chain of sequential Structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. Nucleotides consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotides.
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA chains are not usually just single strands of Structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. Nucleotides consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotides. Usually,
Structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. Nucleotides consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotides of two An organic polymer molecule composed of nucleotide monomers covalently bonded in a chain. Polynucleotides can be either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid).polynucleotide strands are Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base-paired to each
other. The One of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotide Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with thymine in DNA or with uracil in RNA.adenine pairs through hydrogen bonds with the
One of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotide A pyrimidine base found in DNA, which pairs with the complementary base adenine.thymine forming an
A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with thymine in DNA or with uracil in RNA.adenine-A pyrimidine base found in DNA, which pairs with the complementary base adenine.thymine (A-T) Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pair. A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with cytosine in both DNA and RNA.Guanine binds with A pyrimidine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with guanine in both DNA and RNA.cytosine forming a
A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with cytosine in both DNA and RNA.guanine-A pyrimidine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with guanine in both DNA and RNA.cytosine (G-C) Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pair. Because of this Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairing,
An organic polymer molecule composed of nucleotide monomers covalently bonded in a chain. Polynucleotides can be either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid).polynucleotide chains in double-stranded Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA are always complementary to
each other.
DNA Double Helix
The nature of the bonds between One of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotide Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases results in the famous "double helix" Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA structure. The hydrogen bonding between strands of Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA holds the strands together until they are separated for Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA replication or Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA The process by which the DNA sequence of a gene is copied by RNA polymerase to produce a complementary nucleotide messenger RNA strand.transcription.
DNA Replication
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA is replicated (reproduced) through an extremely complicated process. This
is the simplified version.
The
two strands of Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA are separated and a new complementary strand is
synthesized for each old strand by adding complementary Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairs to the
newly-synthesized strand (see figure at right). The Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA polymerase (the
enzyme that makes new Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA) reads the Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base on the original strand and adds
the complementary Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base to the newly synthesized strand. Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA is always
synthesized in a 5� to 3� direction. Since one strand runs in the opposite
direction, it must be synthesized in pieces that are later connected with
A special enzyme that can link together two DNA strands that have double-strand break (a break in both complementary strands of DNA).DNA ligase. In reality, both strands are synthesized in pieces, since the
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA is unwound at numerous sites simultaneously on each One of the threadlike "packages" of genes and other DNA in the nucleus of a cell. Different kinds of organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 in all: 44 autosomes and two sex chromosomes. Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair, so children get half of their chromosomes from their mothers and half from their fathers.chromosome in order
to produce a complete copy in a short period of time (hours instead of
weeks).
RNA
How does DNA turn in you?
Since Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA just stores information, there needs to be a way to turn the
information into physical bodies.
This feat is accomplished through the synthesis of
an intermediate information-carrying molecule that carries the information
from the A membrane-enclosed organelle found in all eukaryotic (non-bacterial) cells, which contains most of the cell's DNA genetic material, organized to form chromosomes.nucleus to the The contents of a cell (excluding the nucleus), including the cytosol, organelles, vesicles, and the cytoskeleton.cytoplasm, where it is processed into Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins. The
intermediate molecule is called Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA (ribonucleic acid). As you can tell from
the name, it differs from Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA in that part of it (the A five-carbon sugar found in RNA (ribonucleic acid), where it alternates with phosphate groups to form the backbone of the RNA polymer.ribose sugar) has an
extra oxygen compared to Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA (the "deoxy" version). In addition, Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA does
not use A pyrimidine base found in DNA, which pairs with the complementary base adenine.thymine as a Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base, but another One of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotide known as A pyrimidine base found in RNA, which pairs with the complementary base adenine.uracil (see figure right). A pyrimidine base found in RNA, which pairs with the complementary base adenine.Uracil
forms Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairs with
A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with thymine in DNA or with uracil in RNA.adenine, as A pyrimidine base found in DNA, which pairs with the complementary base adenine.thymine does in Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA. Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA is The process by which the DNA sequence of a gene is copied by RNA polymerase to produce a complementary nucleotide messenger RNA strand.transcribed from Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA through an
enzyme called An enzyme that makes an RNA copy of a DNA or RNA template, generally in a process called transcription.RNA polymerase, in a process that is known as The process by which the DNA sequence of a gene is copied by RNA polymerase to produce a complementary nucleotide messenger RNA strand.transcription.
There are several kinds of Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA, which have different functions. However, the
Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA that eventually codes for Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins is called messenger Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA (Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA).
Translation
Once Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA
is synthesized, it is processed (usually through splicing) in the A membrane-enclosed organelle found in all eukaryotic (non-bacterial) cells, which contains most of the cell's DNA genetic material, organized to form chromosomes.nucleus
before moving to the The contents of a cell (excluding the nucleus), including the cytosol, organelles, vesicles, and the cytoskeleton.cytoplasm. In many instances, alternate splicing of an
Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA The RNA product produced from the DNA sequence of a gene by the action of the enzyme RNA polymerase.transcript can produce multiple Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins. It is one of the chief ways
that 25,000 genes in the human All the DNA contained in an organism or a cell, which includes both the chromosomes within the nucleus and the DNA in mitochondria.genome can make ~100,000 Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins. Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.Proteins
are produced from an Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA template using a process known as The production of proteins through decoding mRNA to produce a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the genetic code.translation.
The The production of proteins through decoding mRNA to produce a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the genetic code.translation process is quite complicated and requires numerous molecular
machines and co-factors. This description is a simplified version of what
happens. A large molecular machine, called the Complexes of RNA and protein that function in the translation of RNA into protein.ribosome, binds to the
Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA. Complexes of RNA and protein that function in the translation of RNA into protein.Ribosomes are composed of two subunits. The large subunit is composed
of three forms of Relating to ribosomes, complexes of RNA and protein that function in the translation of RNA into protein.ribosomal Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA (The two ribosomal RNA subunits make up the central component of the ribosome, which provides a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids by interacting with the tRNAs during the translation process.rRNA) and 49 different Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins. The
smaller subunit is composed of one The two ribosomal RNA subunits make up the central component of the ribosome, which provides a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids by interacting with the tRNAs during the translation process.rRNA and 33 different Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins. A third
kind of Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA, transfer Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA (A small RNA molecule that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis.tRNA), carries A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acids that are used
to make Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins according to the Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA template. One end of A small RNA molecule that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis.tRNA, consisting
of three Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases, called the A sequence of three nucleotides in transfer RNA that binds to the complementary triplet (codon) in messenger RNA to specify an amino acid during protein synthesis.anticodon, binds to a series of three
complementary Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases, called the A specific sequence of three adjacent nucleotides on a strand of DNA or RNA that specifies the genetic code information for encoding a specific amino acid into a polypeptide chain.codon on the Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA strand. The other
end of the A small RNA molecule that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis.tRNA binds to a specific A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acid. Specific sequence on the Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA
are The act of producing proteins through decoding mRNA to form a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the genetic code.translated into Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins according to the The set 64 possible nucleotide triplets (codons) by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells.genetic code. Each set
of three One of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotide Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases codes for one A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acid. This code
is nearly universal for all organisms (with a few exceptions). The code is
reproduced below:
| Codon | AA | Codon | AA | Codon | AA | Codon | AA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UUU | Phe | UCU | Ser | UAU | Tyr | UGU | Cys |
| UUC | UAC | UGC | UGC | ||||
| UUA | Leu | UCA | UAA | Stop | UGA | Stop | |
| UUG | UCG | UAG | UGG | Trp | |||
| CUU | Leu | CCU | Pro | CAU | His | CGU | Arg |
| CUC | CCC | CAC | CGC | ||||
| CUA | CCA | CAA | Gln | CGA | |||
| CUG | CCG | CAG | CGG | ||||
| AUU | Ile | ACU | Thr | AAU | Asn | AGU | Ser |
| AUC | ACC | AAC | AGC | ||||
| AUA | Met | ACA | AAA | Lys | AGA | Arg | |
| AUG | ACG | AAG | AGG | ||||
| GUU | Val | GCU | Ala | GAU | Asp | GGU | Gly |
| GUC | GCC | GAC | GGC | ||||
| GUA | GCA | GAA | Glu | GGA | |||
| GUG | GCG | GAG | GGG | ||||
An animated model of how Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins are formed can be watched to the right (Point mouse over thumbnail). The 30s subunit of the Complexes of RNA and protein that function in the translation of RNA into protein.ribosome binds to the Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA. A specific A small RNA molecule that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis.tRNA (usually the first A specific sequence of three adjacent nucleotides on a strand of DNA or RNA that specifies the genetic code information for encoding a specific amino acid into a polypeptide chain.codon codes for The amino acid coded for by the initiation codon of all protein encoding genetic sequences. Therefore, all polypeptides begin with methionine, although post-translational modification may remove it.methionine) binds to the A specific sequence of three adjacent nucleotides on a strand of DNA or RNA that specifies the genetic code information for encoding a specific amino acid into a polypeptide chain.codon of the Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA The 50s Relating to ribosomes, complexes of RNA and protein that function in the translation of RNA into protein.ribosomal subunit binds to the 30s subunit. The next A small RNA molecule that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis.tRNA binds to the next A specific sequence of three adjacent nucleotides on a strand of DNA or RNA that specifies the genetic code information for encoding a specific amino acid into a polypeptide chain.codon on the Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA and numerous initiation factors and the enzyme An aminoacyltransferase as well as the primary enzymatic function of the 50S ribosome subunit, which acts as a ribozyme to link adjacent amino acids during protein translation.peptidyl transferase link the two A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acids together through a A compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.peptide bond. As the Relating to ribosomes, complexes of RNA and protein that function in the translation of RNA into protein.ribosomal complex moves along the Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA, the A compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.peptide chain gets longer until the entire An organic compound made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.protein is formed. Other molecular machines are responsible for making sure that the An organic compound made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.protein folds into the correct three dimensional shape.
Conclusion 
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA is made of 4 chemical Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases that are linked together sequentially. These 3 billion Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.bases determine what you will look like and how your body will work. In order to express the information stored in the Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA, your cells have a complicated system that moves the Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA out of the cell's A membrane-enclosed organelle found in all eukaryotic (non-bacterial) cells, which contains most of the cell's DNA genetic material, organized to form chromosomes.nucleus (through Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA) into the The contents of a cell (excluding the nucleus), including the cytosol, organelles, vesicles, and the cytoskeleton.cytoplasm. Once the Messenger ribonucleic acid is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical 'blueprint' for a protein product, which is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries this information to the sites of protein synthesis.mRNA is in the The contents of a cell (excluding the nucleus), including the cytosol, organelles, vesicles, and the cytoskeleton.cytoplasm it is The act of producing proteins through decoding mRNA to form a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the genetic code.translated into Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins, which are the building blocks of the cell. Are you ready to use your new knowledge? Check out these articles:
Related Pages
- Is the Chemical Origin of Life (Abiogenesis) a Realistic Scenario?
- Origin of Homochirality: A Major Problem for Origin of Life Theories
- Evolution Deception in California State High School Biology Textbook Biology: Principles & Explorations
- Descent of Man Theory: Disproved by Molecular Biology
- Bad Designs in Biology? - Why the "Best" Examples Are Bad
- "Junk" DNA: Why non-coding DNA Isn't Really Junk
- Pseudogenes: Argument for Evolution and Against Design?
Related Resources
Fazale Rana (Ph.D.
in chemistry), vice president of research and apologetics at
Reasons To Believe, has written a
new book,
The Cell's Design: How Chemistry Reveals the Creator's Artistry, that
attempts to show that cellular biochemistry points to the existence of the
Creator who designed it. Whereas most intelligent design books attempt to show
the existence of design by demonstrating the existence of irreducible
complexity, Dr. Rana examines the cell's biochemistry with broad strokes of how
everything works together with such marvelous fidelity. So, even if a single
piece or line of evidence might be dismissed as a statistical outlier, the
weight of evidence makes a powerful case for design by a Creator.
Reasons
To Believe's third in a series of books proposing a testable creation model
takes on the origin and design of the universe. Previous books,
Origins of Life: Biblical and Evolutionary Models Face Off
and Who
Was Adam?: A Creation Model Approach to the Origin of Man
, examined the
origin of life on earth and the origin of mankind, respectively.
Creation As Science develops a biblical creation model and compares
the predictions of this model compared to a naturalistic model, young earth
creationism, and theistic evolution. This biblical creation model is divided
into four main areas, the origin of the universe, the origin of the Solar
System, the history of life on earth, and the origin and history of mankind.
The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism
by Michael Behe
Darwin's Black Box author Michael Behe takes on the limits of evolution through an examination of specific genetic examples. Behe finds that mutation and natural selection is capable of generating trivial examples of evolutionary change. Although he concludes that descent with modification has occurred throughout biological history, the molecular devices found throughout nature cannot be accounted for through natural selection and mutation. Behe's book claims to develop a framework for testing intelligent design by defining the principles by which Darwinian evolution can be distinguished from design.
Today's New Reason to Believe
Integrating Science and Faith
- 11/05/2012 12:52 AM
Imperial College Debate on Evidence for God
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Resource Highlight: Creation Day Debates
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Alien Particles Challenge a Young-Earth Creation Model
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() - 10/25/2012 12:05 PM
TNRTB Classic: Basking in UV Radiation
On Monday, guest writer and visiting scholar Hugh Henry discussed research into the effects of radiation on the human body. Despite our fear of radiation, it seems that God has designed the human physiology to withstand a reasonable about of exposure. Check out this previous TNRTB from Fazale Rana on how our DNA reacts to … Read more
() - 10/25/2012 12:34 AM
TNRTB Classic: Basking in UV Radiation
On Monday, guest writer and visiting scholar Hugh Henry discussed research into the effects of radiation on the human body. Despite our fear of radiation, it seems that God has designed the human physiology to withstand a reasonable about of exposure. Check out this previous TNRTB from Fazale Rana on how our DNA reacts to … Read more
() - 10/22/2012 12:50 PM
“Deadly” Radiation and God’s Design
A feature article in the August 2012 issue of Scientific American trumpets a scary warning: “Deadly Rays from Clouds—Thunderstorms Give Out Powerful Blasts of X-Rays and Gamma Rays.”1 Headlines are written to grab the reader’s attention—whether or not the article’s content lives up to the hype. At the end of this particular article, the authors … Read more
() - 10/18/2012 12:26 AM
TNRTB Classic: Increased Oxygen
Earth experienced many events that brought it to the brink of becoming a barren wasteland. Two dramatic increases in the atmospheric oxygen content (2.5 and 0.8 billion years ago, respectively) resulted in mile-thick ice sheets that nearly encased the planet. Yet Earth rebounded from all these events, better prepared for the new life that arrived … Read more
() - 10/15/2012 12:17 AM
First Plants Bring Major Climate Change
RTB’s creation model posits that the change in life throughout Earth’s history reflects the work of a divine intelligence transforming a hostile-to-life planet into one capable of supporting humanity. As the environs change, so must the life. Studies of the first plant life on the continents show how the plants altered the land and atmosphere … Read more
() - 10/11/2012 12:36 AM
TNRTB Classic: Junk DNA and the Nucleoskeletal Hypothesis
A few days ago I wrote about the ENCODE project and the new recognition that, at minimum, 80 percent of the human genome consists of functional DNA elements. Despite some skeptics’ complaints that the media, creationists, and intelligent design adherents have misconstrued the ENCODE report, the project’s results stand. The human genome is not a vast … Read more
() - 10/08/2012 12:26 AM
Responding to ENCODE “Skeptics”
Recently, the ENCODE Project Consortium reported that 80 percent of the human genome consists of functional elements, major indicators of design. But some skeptics assert (loudly) that the results of the ENCODE project have been overhyped and misconstrued. In this article, I respond to the most salient points made by the ENCODE “skeptics.” The human … Read more
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http://www.godandscience.org/evolution/all_about_dna.html
Last Modified January 10, 2009
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